Turkmenistan has a subtropical desert climate. Summers are long, hot and dry (from May to September), while winters are cold though not as severe as in Kazakhstan and Russia. There are occasional light snowfalls from approximately December to February. Precipitation takes place between February to the end of May in the form of light showers. Ashgabat, the capital, enjoys approximately 300 days of sun each year. Turkmenistan averages 225 millimeters of rainfall annually. Temperatures in summer vary from 35 C to 45 C, and in winter from -0 C to -2 C. The northern part of the country has lower temperatures during both seasons.

The population of Turkmenistan is over 5 million, and approximately 45% of which lives in urban areas. The estimated annual growth rate is 3.5% and the fertility rate is 2.88 births per woman. Young people constitute which makes 58% of the population.

Ashgabat is the capital of Turkmenistan. There are five velayats (administrative regions): Ahal, Balkan, Lebap, Mary and Dashogus. The other main cities and industrial centers are Mary, Turkmenabat, Dashogus, Khazar, Balkanabat and Buzmeyin. The main port is Turkmenbashi on the Caspian Sea with a population of approximately sixty thousand people. Physical infrastructure and social services are extremely underdeveloped in the rural areas. Water shortage is a major problem throughout Turkmenistan.

The main ethnic groups in the country are Turkmen (81%), Uzbek (9.7%), Russian (4.3%), Kazak (1.7%), Tartar and Ukranian (1%). It is also home to Azerbaijani, Armenian and Belarussian minorities (Living Conditions Survey, UNDP, 1998).

The Turkmen language has been declared to be the official state language. However, in the urban areas Russian continues to be widely spoken.

Religion

The majority of the population is Sunnite Muslim. There are also Russian Orthodox and Armenian Christian minorities in Turkmenistan. The Turkmen are very secular in their outlook and tolerant of other religions.

History, Politics and Administration

The History of Turkmenistan in Chronological Order:

• Today’s Turkmen territory was part of the Ancient Persian Empire until the 4^th Century BC.
• Alexander of Macedonia took over this territory from the Persian Empire in the 4^th century BC.
• The Parthians gained control after the Macedonian Empire crumbled and established their capital at Nisa.
• Another Persian dynasty of Sassanids gained control in the 3^rd century AD.
• The area was invaded by Turks in the 5^th century AD.
• Mongol invasions took place in the 10th century AD.The Turkmen trace their history from this time when Islam was first introduced.The country remained nomadic and tribal order prevailed.
• Seljuk Turks seized control in the 11^th century AD.
• The Mongol ruler Gengis Khan seized power in the 13^th century AD.
• Between the 12^th and 14^th centuries the whole region was Islamized.
• Mongols continued to rule until the Uzbek invasion.
• At a later date, the region divided into two parts under the control of the Khanates of Khiwa and Bukhara.
• Khiwa fell to the Russians in 1868, and Bukhara came under Russian rule in 1876. In 1881,the final battle of Goke-Tepe was fought in which 14,000 Turkmen were massacred.
• At the time of the revolution in 1917, today’s Turkmenistan was divided into the Soviet Socialist Republic of Turkistan and the Socialist Republics of Khiwa and Bukhara.
• In 1924, the Turkmen SSR was integrated into the USSR.
• On October 27, 1991, Turkmenistan proclaimed independence.
• In March 1992, Turkmenistan became a member of the UN.

Turkmenistan's political system is characterized by a strong presidency and a centralized decision making structure. The President is also the Prime Minister and chairs the only political party. He has declared his support for a transition toward democracy and a multi-party system. However, at present, political stability and continuity are viewed as essential pre-conditions for economic stability and growth. The President’s role is of central importance to all aspects of economic and human development in the country, and major decisions at all levels of government are cleared by the President's office.

In December 1999, the Khalk Maslakhaty appointed the President unanimously to an unlimited term in office. The Khalk Maslakhaty is the only body empowered to make changes to the constitution, but its main function is to approve the overall direction of government policy. The unicameral Mejlis (parliament) is the main, but compliant, legislature. The Mejlis' 50 members are directly elected, by constituencies through an absolute majority of the votes cast. The latest elections took place in December 1999. There is little separation of powers between the legislature and judiciary bodies. Specialized bodies such as the Procurator General’s Office and the Central Bank are subordinated to the President’s authority as well.

Social and Economic Developments

In 1999, the population reached 5.1m after ten years of 3.5% average annual growth; substantially higher than the 2.4% rate recorded between 1980 and 1989. Population density in 1999 equaled 10.4 inhabitants per km². Official statistics of human development such as education levels, nutrition and infant mortality are all relatively good and demonstrate positive trends. Gender-related development indices, such as GDI (Gender Development Index) and GEM (Gender Empowerment Index) demonstrate relatively few gender disparities.

State subsidies offset the negative social effects of economic transition. Services are subsidized and most utilities are free of charge. Yet the full degree of the vulnerability of different groups and the extent of human development remains difficult to assess, as statistics relating to social indicators are more hard to get or require verification. Soil salination and poor water quality are negatively affecting productivity and health in many velayats. The government continues to focus on state-led expansion and economic diversification, combined with some private sector growth and foreign investment. Privatization has entered a new phase, with the focus shifting to industry and increased use of public auctions for the disposal of assets. Nevertheless, the public sector still generates approximately 60 per cent of GDP and employs 45 per cent of the work force. The state continues to retain tight control over key sectors of the economy and over access to imports, credit and foreign currency. However, steps have been taken within the Ministry of Finance and Economy to clearly distinguish the functions of economic analysis, policy formulation, and budget preparation and expenditure control. Turkmenistan’s economy is dominated by gas production, which until 1997, accounted for between half and two thirds of GDP and up to three-quarters of exports. Strong, real GDP growth in 1999 resulted from resumed gas exports, a record grain harvest and state-commissioned construction in new sectors. Depreciation of the exchange rate in the parallel market has fueled inflation, although it has been limited by contractionary policies and government subsidies. The country continues to post a positive trade balance on the back of gas exports to Russia and government restrictions on imports. But the low level of actual foreign-currency export earnings, combined with a large debt service, means continued balance-of-payments difficulties.